Dagbani Wikipedia

Tia

D-Class

Tia
organisms known by a particular common name, first-order class, plant life-form
Yaɣ sheliwoody plant, phanerophyte Mali niŋ
Pahi laphanerophyte, forest Mali niŋ
This taxon is source ofwood Mali niŋ
Ŋun bɔhim ŋa nyɛforestry science, dendrology Mali niŋ


Tia (tree)[1] Tihi baŋsim bɔhimbu puuni, tia nyɛla perenial plane din mali wuli waɣila bee tiyɔɣu, din too zooi ka di nyɛla di sɔŋdi la wula mini vari. Bukaata shɛŋa ni, ti buɣisibu ni tooi bi yalimma, din nyɛ kpandi li mɔɣu ka mali buyi zoobu, ti' shɛŋa bɛ ni zaŋdi leeri taabodari malila di dintoli buɣisibu. Buɣisiri shɛŋa din yalimmi ni, abe ti' shɛŋa din waɣ' pam, tree ferns, kɔdu tihi mini bamboos gba nyɛla tihi. Tihi pala monophyletic taxonomic group amaa di mali tihi balibu balibu din yina di dintoli zuɣu, tia maŋmaŋ mini wula din kuli yɛn niŋ ka di du n-gari ti' shɛŋa din kpalim, n-kpaɣri wuntaŋ zuɣu. Tihi balibu pam nyɛla angiosperms bee hardwoods; din kam kpalim maa mi puuni, di pam nyɛla gymnosperms bee softwoods. Tihi nyɛla binshɛŋa din be biɛhigu ni n-tooi yuuri pam biɛhigu puuni. Ti' shɛŋa tooi paari yuun' kɔbiga ni chenji ka shɛŋa mi gba nira ku tooi lahi baŋ di yuma gba. Tihi yina mi kamani 370 milliion years ha, ka di kuli lahi buɣisi ni ti' shɛŋa din bi pam ni tooi paai yuun' tuhituhi zɔɣa diba ata dunia yaaŋa zuɣu ti ni ʒi sahashɛli ŋɔ. Tia malila secondary wul' bɔbigu, din nyɛ di maŋmaŋ ni sɔŋdi n-wuɣiri ka chɛri tingbani, din mali woody tissues yaa zuɣu, ni vascular tissues din yɛn ʒiri materials tia maa yaɣ' shɛli n-zaŋdi chani yaɣ' shɛli tia maa zuɣusaa. Tihi pam maŋmaŋ (wulikpani) malila pɔɣiri din nyɛ binshɛli din sɔŋdi guri tia maa maŋmaŋa. Tingbani puuni, wula nyɛla din yɛrigira pam; dini n-nyɛ din gbibi tia maa viɛnyɛla ka yihiri kom mini nutrients tankpaɣu puuni. Tingbani zuɣu, wula maa pirigila wul' bihi ni shoots. Shoots maa n-nyɛ din yiri vari, din deeri light energy ka lebigiri shikiru ni so' shɛli din nyɛ photosynthesis, din nyɛ din leeri tihi maa bindirigu, din yɛn tahi zoosim na. Tihi kam malila binwala bee kpil' shɛŋa di ni namda bee n-wonda. Ti' shɛŋa din niŋdi flawaasi malila kpila din be bin wala ni, ka conifers mee kpila be cones puuni ka tia ferns mi produsiri spores. Tihi mali bukaata pam zaŋ kpa erosion mini climate baligibu. Di yihiri la carborndioxide atmosphere puuni ka gbibiri carborn pam di tissues puuni. Tihi mini mɔɣini leeri biɛhigu shee n-zaŋ ti binkɔb' shɛŋa nti pahi ti' shɛŋa. Tropical forest nyɛla din be biodiverse biɛhigu shɛhi dunia puuni. Tihi tiri mahim, ti bee bɛ ni mali shɛli m-mɛra, dari din yɛn zaŋ duɣi, ni binwola din nyɛ bindirigu, ka lahi mali bukaata shɛŋa dabam. Dunia yaɣa pam, mɔɣu boorimi, ka tihi gba ŋmahira din yɛn yɛligu polo pukparilim tuma zuɣu, lala ŋɔ maa mi yi niŋda sa' pooli ni tooi ti nahim ninsalinima mini binnamda kam dunia yaangi zuɣu.

Buɣisibu

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Diagram of secondary growth in a eudicot or coniferous tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and roots.

Tia nyɛla bachi shɛli din yoli, amaaa kahigibu kani zaŋ ti tia gbunni ni nye shɛm, di nyɛla di nambu yuli bee balli din yoli ni.[2][3] Din kuli nye shɛm, tia nyɛla mɔɣu din mali da’ waɣanli din kpa wula yaɣi gbunni bee bee vɔri.[4] Tihi lahi nyɛla bɛ ni mali di waɣilim buɣisiri li,[5] ka mani tihi din waɣilim nye mita pirigili hali ni mita pia(1.6 - 32.8ft) yuli n-nye tuturi,[6] dinzuɣu tia waɣilim m-buɣisiri.[5] Tutu kara ka mani papaya mini kodu n-nye tihi di yi kana vɔ’ kara ŋɔ polo.[3][7]

Buɣisibu saɣi ŋmaai din yoli n-ye, tia mali la daɣu din zoori yuuni kam (yɛligira), n'ti pahi di zuɣusaa zoobu zuɣu.[5][8] Di yi kana lala buɣisibu ŋɔ polo, tihi bee tuturi ka mani abe tia, kodu ni papaya, din pa tihi, di waɣilim, zoobu yi be ka wula. Tutu shɛŋa din mali vɔri din ni tooi boli tihi zaŋ yi di buɣisibu polo;[9] ka Joshua tree, bamboonima ni abe mi ka zoobu din pahiri ayi ka na ʒin nam daɣu din mali zoobu soya,[10][11] bɛ ni tooi nam "pseudo-wood" zaŋ yi lignifying din be di zoobu piligu.[12] Tihi balibu ŋan be genus Dracaena, di mini di kuli nye din mali vɔri yini yini maa, di mali zoobu din pahiri ayi din yiri na kulim din be di daɣu puuni, amaa di be di ko ka che kpaŋbu kulim din be tihi vɔri ayi yi.[13]

Di zaa buɣisibu ŋɔ nyaaŋa, tihi buɣisibu lahi doli la di bukaata; kotɔmsi, ka mani tihi din namdi taabonima.[14]

Overview

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Tia tihigibu biɛhigu nyɛla di zoobu taɣidee din be ti’ bɔbigu ni: di waɣilim niŋbu ni, tihi nyɛla din kpaɣiri tab’ bori wuntaŋa.[15] A ni nya ka tihi waɣa ka yuui,[16] ka shɛŋa niŋ yuun’ tuha.[17] Tihi pam zuŋɔ nyɛla din bira yina ti’ kura din gari ni.[18] Tihi nyɛla din mali nahingbaŋ pala ka mani, da’ kpɛma din mali kulim ka di che ka di dabisa ka yuura, ka che ka di niŋdi waɣilim gariti tihi pam ka lahi teeri di vɔri viɛnyɛla. Di be di ko ka che tuturi, din mini li zoobu ŋmani taba, ka di zoobu nyɛla di yɛligiri mi ka mali daɣu kpeeni;[6] amaa waligimsim chirichi ka tia mini tutuɣu sunsuuni,[19] ka di gabbu yɛlimaŋli nyɛla tihi ni zoobu ni tooi filim luɣishɛli vuhim ni dii bi yaɣi lala ka mani zoya zuɣu. Laasabu ka mani tuhi pihiyobu hali tuhi kobiga (60,000-100,000) tihi balibu, tihi ŋan be anduniya zaa ni tooi paai vaabu pishi ni anu kobigi puuni naawuni nam tɛri zaa puuni.[20][21] Lala tihi ŋɔ pirigila be la yaɣa shɛŋa din tuli ni; lala yaɣa ŋɔ shɛŋa pala tihi baŋdiba ni na vihi nya, ka di che ka tihi bali mini di biɛhisi na be ʒilinsi ni.[22]

 
Tall herbaceous monocotyledonous plants such as banana lack secondary growth, but are trees under the broadest definition.

Yaligibu

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The Daintree Rainforest

Tihi din be anduniya, ka mani yuuni 2015 laasabu ni wuhi shɛm, paai tihi tiriliyɔŋ ata ni chɛnji, ka di puuni tihi paai tiriliyɔŋ yini ni chɛnji (kobigi puuni vaabu pihinahi ni ayobu) be tulim shɛhi, ka di tiriliyɔŋ 0.61 (kobigi puuni vaabu pishi) be mahim shee, ka di tiriliyɔŋ 0.76 (kobigi puuni vaabu pishi ni anahi) yɔɣu ni. Laasabu ŋɔ galisim gari laasubu din pun niŋ gari ʒii bunii zuɣu, ka di dumi tam tihi galisim zahimbu zaŋ yi polo tuhi kobisinahi zuɣu.Di ni tooi niŋ ka chirimbu bela be di ni, dama laasabu niŋbu jandi la Europe mini North America. Laasabu ŋɔ wuhiya, ni tihi ka mani biliyɔŋ pia ni anu n-nye bɛ ni ŋmari yuuni kulo kam ka sari tihi ka mani biliyɔŋ diba abu. Yuma tuhi pia ni ayi zuɣu, tum daadam kparilim biligu, anduniya zaa tihi booi ka mani vaabu pihinahi ni ayobu kobigi puuni (46%).[23][24][25][26] Tihi balibu ka mani tuhi pihiyobu ni anahi ni kobigi n-nye din be anduniya zaa. Ka tihi ŋɔ pihinahi ni ata vaabu kobigi puuni, South America n-ye din mali ti’ bali bɔbigu, ka Eurasia paya ni (22%), Africa (16%), North America (15%), ni Oceania (11%).[27]

Luɣi shɛŋa ŋan be viɛnyɛla, ka mani Daintree yɔɣu din be Queensland, bee podocarp mini mɔ' vari yɔɣu din be Ulva Island, New Zealand, tihi nyɛla din tooi beni, ka yaɣa shɛŋa ŋan yooi bahi ka mani mɔri tiŋgbani nyɛ mɔ’ waɣala ni deera, din gba tiri tihi soli ka di zoori hali ti namdi pata.[28][29]

 
Conifers in the Swabian alps

Maasim ni be yaɣa shɛŋa, mɔ’ koba n-zooi; tiŋ' shɛli di ni zooi northern hemisphere toondini polo, nyɛla din maha “taiga” bee northern mɔ’ koba yɔɣu (boreal yɔɣu).[30][31] Taiga n-nye anduniya zaa tiŋgbani din galisi biome, ka di gbaai tihi polo ka mani vaabu pihita yin'ka kobigi puuni.[32] Maasim saha din be toondini polo pala din mali bukaata ti tihi bee mɔri zoobu ka tihi mi simsi ni di zooi yom tulim saha di yi ti ka dabisili pa waɣa. Wuntaŋ niɛlinsi bi yaɣi laa di lɔŋ ni, di zuɣu di ni tooi niŋ ka mɔri bili tihi ŋɔ gbuna ni.[33] Lala tatabo tihi nyɛla din be zoya zuɣu, luɣishɛŋa pɔhim ni che ka maasim beni ka di bi che ka lala saha maa yuura.[34]

Luɣishɛli a ni nya ka saa mibu nyi yim saha kam, (tihi din mali vɔ' kara mini din gabi) nyɛla din mali tihi balibu ka mani oak, beech, birch ni maple.[35] Yɔɣu sin be gum lahi nyɛla ŋan be southern hemisphere, kotomsi ka mani din be Eastern Australia temperate forest, ka di nahingbaŋ nye Eucalyptus tihi mini gɔhi tihi ni.[36]

Tulim yaɣa shɛŋa ŋan mali mansoon nahingbana bee m-be, ka yuuni puli ni tulim saha taɣiri ni mahili saha ka mani Amazon yɔɣu ni, tihi balibu din mali vɔ'kara n-deeri di ni, ka di shɛŋa nye din vɔri zuuri ka labidi puhira.[37] Yaɣa shɛŋa din tula ka ka saa bi miri pam tabiri sɔŋdi tihi ŋɔ, di bi zoori limdi taba, ka wuntaŋ nye din paari tiŋgbani ni, din nye mɔri ni chuchuri. Go’ tia mini chua nyɛla din pa bindi di ni viɛnyɛla.[38]

Di yaɣa yaɣa

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Tingbani ni wula

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Tihi wul' shɛŋa din be tingbani nyɛla din gbibi tii maa ʒaya ka lahi nyɛ di labisiri kɔm mini nutrients tingbani ni n zaŋ di tahiri tii maa luɣuli kam. Di lahi nyela tii yaɣ' shɛli din tahiri nama na, gubu, biɛhigu, energy gbubibu ni bukaata shɛŋa din pahi. Radicle bee embryonic wula n nyɛ tuuli seedling yaɣ' shɛli din yiri seeds ni na germination yi ti nyɛ din niŋda. Di nyɛla din lebigiri taproot, din nyɛ din chɛni tingbani ni. Bakɔi dibaashɛm sunsuuni, lateral robots gba yiri na di lɔɣa ni ka zooi n kpe tankpaɣu zuɣusaa. Tihi pam ni, taproots ŋɔ nyɛla din yiri ka chɛ wide spreading laterals. Zaŋ miri wula ŋɔ nangban kpaŋa, bɛ ni mi binshɛli single cell root hairs n nyɛ din biɛni. Din n nyɛ din kuli biɛ ni tankpaɣu puuni binyɛra ka ni tooi nyu kɔm mini nutrients kamani potassium solution puuni. Wula ŋɔ nyɛla din bɔri oxygen ni di vuhi amaa ti' balibu balibu biɛla n-ŋɔ kamani mangrove mini pond cypress( Taxodium ascendens) n ni tooi kuli bɛ yaɣ' shɛŋa din tankpaɣu nyɛ din kuli kpe kɔm pam.

Sunsuuni daɣu

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Northern beech (Fagus sylvatica) trunk in autumn

Sunsuuni daɣu ŋɔ bukaata kpeeni nyɛla si yiri tia vɔri yaɣa tiŋgbani ni, di yɛn che ka tia ŋɔ tooi yaɣi di tab’ zuɣu di kpaɣiri bo wuntaŋ nelinsi.[39] Di lahi nyɛla din ʒiri kom mini kulim yiri tiŋgbani wula ni duri zuɣusaa ti tiri yaɣa din be dini, ka lahi wuligiri bindira shɛli vɔri ni namdi tiri tia ŋɔ luɣili kam, hali ni gbunni wula gba.[40]

Di yi kana tihi din laɣim mali di paɣi tali mini do’ tali luɣi yini ni din wali wali, sunsuuni daɣu yaɣili din kuli be kpaŋ ŋɔ n-nye di pɔɣari, ka di zooi ka ti'sum n-pali di ni.[41] Di bɔri la kpaŋbu, kom gubu tiri jili shɛŋa ŋan be puuni maa. Di guri la da' sunsuuni ŋɔ ka chari doro, binkobiri fitina, ni buɣim. Ti pɔɣu ŋɔ nyɛla cork cambium bee phellogen ni kuli labiri namda shɛli saha kam.[41] London pilɛin (Platanus × hispanica) nyɛla din puɣisri di pɔɣari bahiri saha kam. Lala n-lahi nyɛla, ka imilarly, “silver birch” (Betula pendula) gba piɛhiri di pɔɣari bahira. Di yi ka tia ŋɔ zoora, pɔɣu pala yirina, ka zaɣi kura la mi pili yihibu tihi pam ni. Ti' shɛŋa ni ka mani pine (Pinus), pɔɣuri ŋɔ puɣisira, ka di kariti ban bɔri li fitina niŋbu, ka loba tihi (Hevea brasiliensis) ni, sum’ n-nye din yira. The quinine bark tree (Cinchona officinalis) nyɛla din mali tom ka di nye ka di pɔɣiri ŋɔ bi malisa.[40] Ti' kara ka mani tihi din sunsuuni daɣu nye yoɣu be Pteridophyta, Arecales, Cycadophyta ni Poales ka mani tihi wula, abe tihi, ni bamboonima nyɛla din mali biɛhi konkoba ni pɔɣu konkoba.[42]

 
A section of yew (Taxus baccata) showing 27 annual growth rings, pale sapwood and dark heartwood

Di mini pɔɣu ŋɔ nye gubu ti tia ŋɔ, di gba nyɛla binniɛma ka mani. …. ni bi che shɛli. Lala binniɛma yɛn nyɛ la bɛ gala niŋ pɔɣiri ŋɔ ni ka sala ŋɔ mi naan yi ŋubi kpe jila ŋɔ ni ti chib' chib’ li voya. Ka ŋɔ ni tooi ti soli ka binniɛma kpe n-ti bo fitina ti tia ŋɔ. Dutch elm doro nyɛla funguusi balli din nye (Ophiostoma) ni tiri shɛli di yi niŋ ka di yi ti’ shɛli di ni be n-looi ti’ shɛli dabam. Tia ŋɔ ni garigi funguusi ŋɔ zoosim di ni ka di nyɛla di yɛn taɣi la jili shɛli din ʒiri kulim gindi di ni, ka tia ŋɔ zaa ti pili nyaaŋa labbu hali ti kpi. Britain, yuuni 1990 polo, tihi kalli ka mani miliyɔŋ pishi ni anu n-daa kpi ka di nyɛla doro ŋɔ.[43]

Tia pɔɣu puuni yuli n-nye phloem ka ŋɔ pahi ti’ sum din sichiri ʒin gili tia ni. Din nyɛla din bala, ka di shɛŋa din piɛ n-piɛ lee voya.[44] Ti' pɔɣu ŋɔ puuni, yaɣa shɛli beni mali sɛl konkoba ka sɛl shɛli din kpɛm di ni ŋɔ yuli nye vascular cambium yaɣali.[45]

Jili shɛli din na yoli kpa ŋɔ n-nye tia puuni. Di nyɛla din mali ko’ soya ni sɛl shɛŋa din niɛ, ka kom bi sabigi. Di ʒiri la kom mini kulim yiri ti'wula ni duri zuɣusaa. Puuni nyɛla din zooi hali ti leei tia puuni suhi di yi ti niŋ ka puuni ŋɔ kurigi. Ti’ suhi ŋɔ nyɛla din sabigi gari di puuuni ŋɔ. Di ni n-nye sunsuuni daɣu ŋɔ nyɛbili ka tiri li kpɛŋ.[46] Lala wula ŋɔ n-ye yuuni zoobu wula[47][48] Di ni tooi lahi niŋ ka soya beni guuri kpɛri di wula ŋɔ yaɣa. Di ni n-nye vascular rais din nye sɛl kori yoori soli kpɛri daɣu ŋɔ ni.[46] Ti’ guri shɛŋa beni ti tooi lee yɔri amaa ka ni tooi na zani niŋ yuma.[49]

Vɔri

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Vɔri nyɛla tia yaɣa shɛli di ni mali nyeri di vuhim bee bindirigu ka di piɛ viɛnyɛla tooi deeri wuntaŋ nɛlinsi ka bi gaɣiri taba.[50] Di nyɛla tia ŋɔ ni mali bukaata ni shɛli pam ka di zuɣu che ka di ni tooi mali tɔm dini din kuli yɛn che ka di guli che binkobiri fitina. Tihi vɔri nyɛla din bihisi be konkoba, ka di nyɛla di bihigu doli la vuhim din be tia ŋɔ ni be yaɣa shɛli maa. Shɛŋa ni tooi nya vɔ’ kara, ka shɛŋa nye zaɣi mulima, ka shɛŋa bala bee n-kpɛma bee ka shɛŋa kuli nye zaɣ’ vɔkahili noli, ka shɛŋa mi pa lala. Di nahingbana taɣiri doli luɣi shɛli di ni be, di yi niŋ ka kom bi yaɣi lala luɣishɛli bee namtɛri bi pɔra. Tiŋgbani din maai kpaŋ ni tooi che ka kom bi yaɣi laa di ni ka tihi din mali vɔ’ mulima tooi zooi di ni gari din mali vɔ' kara. Vɔ' mulima tihi, ka mani fir tihi, zuɣisaa wula ŋɔ zoori mi sheeri tiŋa, di yɛn che ka di tooi pihi maligim bahi. Yaɣa, vɔ’ kara tihi din be tulim shee, lala saha ŋuna, din vɔri zuuri mi lura. Di yi ti niŋ ka dabisa bi lahi waɣa, ka maasim pa nye din beni, vɔri ŋɔ bi lahi kpari zaɣi pala, ka vɔ’ ʒiɛhi mini vɔ’ dozima din pun beni la pa yi polo.[50]. Yaɣa shɛŋa din tulim dii bi yaɣi laa, di tihi nyɛla din kuli gbubi di vɔri yuuni kam. Vɔ’ gaŋgaŋa ni tooi tɔhigiri lura ka shɛŋa lahi klari zaani di zaani amaa vɔri din yuuri n-zooi. Yaɣa shɛŋa beni ni ti’ shɛŋa din tiŋgban’ kuŋ sheei ni tooi wabiri di vɔri bahira yuuni kam, ka mani wuuni maa piligu.[51] Many deciduous trees flower before the new leaves emerge.[52] Ti' shɛŋa beni ka vɔ’ maŋa amaa ka mali yaɣa shɛŋa din ŋmani li ka mani Phylloclade[53] – ka mani a ni nyɛli shɛm Phyllocladus.[54]

Evolutionary history

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Further information: Evolutionary history of plants
 
Lepidodendron, an extinct lycophyte tree
 
Palms and cycads as they might have appeared in the middle Tertiary

Tuuli ha tihi maa n-daa nyɛ tree ferns, horsetails n-ti pahi lycophytes ka di nyɛ din daa zoori tibɔŋ din be Carbonferous ni. Tuuli tia n-daa nyɛ Wattieza ka bɛ daa nya li New York tiŋgbani. Pɔi ka bɛ daa nya tia ŋɔ, Archaeopteris n-daa na nyɛ tia so sokam ni mi.[55] Di zaa nyɛla din labiri dɔɣira bee yɛligira gba ka di pa di kpila ni.[56] [57]

Ecology

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Further information: Forest

Tihi nyɛla din mali anfaan nima pam biɛhigu puuni,[58] di nyɛla biɛhigu shee zaŋ n-ti bineen shɛŋa;[59] di nima nyɛ binkɔ shɛŋa nyɛla ban be ti'yɔɣiri ni ka bineenbihi shɛba nyɛ ban be tihi ŋɔ wula zuɣu. Vari, puma, n-ti binwalla nyɛla tihi ni niŋdi binshɛŋa. Tihi lahi nyɛla din tiri ninsali nima mahim.[60][61] Tihi nyɛla din gabi tamkpaɣu ni ka di nyɛ din sɔŋdi tamkpaɣu ŋɔ ka chɛri saa kom ʒin chaŋ.[62]



Lihimi m-pahi

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Kundivihira

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  1. ↑ Naden, Tony. 2014. Dagbani dictionary. Webonary.
  2. ↑ Ehrenberg, Rachel (30 March 2018). "What makes a tree a tree?". Knowable Magazine. DOI:10.1146/knowable-033018-032602.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 What is a tree?. Smartphone tour. University of Miami: John C. Gifford Arboretum (2012).
  4. ↑ Tokuhisa, Jim. Tree definition. Newton Ask a Scientist.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Gschwantner, Thomas (2009). "Common tree definitions for national forest inventories in Europe". Silva Fennica 43 (2): 303–321. DOI:10.14214/sf.463.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Keslick, John A. (2004). Tree Biology Dictionary.
  7. ↑ Agroforestry principles. Echo technical notes (2007).
  8. ↑ Coder, Kim D. (August 1999). Secondary Growth Anatomy and Tree Rings. Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia.
  9. ↑ Gyde, Lund H. (1999). "A forest by any other name …". Environmental Science & Policy 2 (2): 125–133. DOI:10.1016/s1462-9011(98)00046-x.
  10. ↑ Diversity and evolution of monocots. University of Wisconsin.
  11. ↑ Rodd, Tony; Stackhouse, Jennifer (2008). Trees: A Visual Guide. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-25650-7. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  12. ↑ Monocot stems. The stem. University of Miami.
  13. ↑ Jura-Morawiec, Joanna (2015). "Formation of amphivasal vascular bundles in Dracaena draco stem in relation to rate of cambial activity". Trees 29 (5): 1493–1499. DOI:10.1007/s00468-015-1230-3.
  14. ↑ Community forestry rapid appraisal of tree and land tenure. Food and Agriculture Organisation.
  15. ↑ Lowman, V.; Rinker, H. Bruce (2004). Forest Canopies. Academic Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-08-049134-9. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  16. ↑ (2006) "Some Evolutionary Consequences of Being a Tree". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 37: 187–214. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110215.
  17. ↑ (2004) "The limits to tree height". Letters to Nature 428 (6985): 851–4. DOI:10.1038/nature02417. PMID 15103376.
  18. ↑ "These are 11 of the Oldest Things in the World". Time. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.
  19. ↑ Hawthorne, William; Lawrence, Anna (2012). Plant Identification: Creating User-Friendly Field Guides for Biodiversity Management. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-84407-079-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  20. ↑ Hajela, Deepti (2 May 2008). "Scientists to capture DNA of trees worldwide for database". USA Today. http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2008-05-02-890171068_x.htm.
  21. ↑ Kinver, Mark (5 April 2017). "World is home to '60,000 tree species'". BBC Science and Environment News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-39492977.
  22. ↑ Friis, Ib; Balslev, Henrik; Kongelige, Danske (2005). Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local, regional, and global dimensions: proceedings of an international symposium held at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in Copenhagen, Denmark, 25–28 May 2003. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-87-7304-304-2.
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  24. ↑ Greenfieldboyce, Nell (2 September 2015). Tree Counter Is Astonished By How Many Trees There Are. National Public Radio.
  25. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (3 September 2015). "Earth's trees number 'three trillion'". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-34134366.
  26. ↑ (2015) "Global count reaches 3 trillion trees". Nature. DOI:10.1038/nature.2015.18287.
  27. ↑ Pappas, Stephanie (May 2022). Thousands of Tree Species Remain Unknown to Science.
  28. ↑ Climax Community. Encyclopedia of Earth.
  29. ↑ Physical Environments Biosphere Vegetation Succession Moorlands. Macaulay Institute.
  30. ↑ Nelson, Rob. The Taiga.
  31. ↑ Northern Coniferous Forest Biome. The Forest Community. FORSite. “The diversity of tree species in the boreal forest is quite low, with black spruce (Picea mariana), larch or tamarack (Larix laricina), and white spruce (P. glauca) the most common species. The former two species generally occupy wet sites with poorly drained mineral or organic soils, while white spruce is the climatic climax species on sites that are drier and higher in nutrient content. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) n-nye tihi balibu din zooi biome wulinpuhili polo.”
  32. ↑ Taiga Biological Station: FAQ. Taiga Biological Station (23 March 2010).
  33. ↑ The forest biome: Boreal forest. University of California Museum of Paleontology.
  34. ↑ Körner, Christian. High elevation treeline research. University of Basel: Institute of Botany.
  35. ↑ Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Ecoregions. WWF.
  36. ↑ Eastern Australia Temperate Forest. WWF.
  37. ↑ The tropical rain forest. Biomes of the World. Marietta College.
  38. ↑ "Grass savanna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
  39. ↑ King, David A. (1990). "The Adaptive Significance of Tree Height". The American Naturalist 135 (6): 809–828. DOI:10.1086/285075. “competition for light is the primary factor responsible for the evolution and maintenance of the arboreal life form. The resulting evolutionarily stable growth pattern maximizes the competitive ability of the individual”
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Russell & Cutler 2003, pp. 16–17
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 (1994) "Survey of English Macroscopic Bark Terminology". IAWA Journal 15 (1): 3–45. DOI:10.1163/22941932-90001338. “phellem|a secondarily formed protective tissue in stems and roots consisting of dead cells with chiefly suberised walls: developed outward from the phellogen and forming a part of periderm”
  42. ↑ Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2002). Biology (6th ed.). Pearson Education. p. 725. ISBN 978-0-201-75054-6.
  43. ↑ Webber, Joan. Dutch elm disease in Britain. Forest Research.
  44. ↑ (2004) "Transport mechanisms for organic forms of carbon and nitrogen between source and sink". Annual Review of Plant Biology 55: 341–372. DOI:10.1146/annurev.arplant.55.031903.141758. PMID 15377224.
  45. ↑ Wood, tree trunks and branches. BioTech. Cronodon Museum.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 The anatomy of a tree trunk – the wood 2.
  47. ↑ Fritts, H. C. (2001). Tree Rings and Climate. Blackburn Press. ISBN 978-1-930665-39-2.
  48. ↑ Annual growth rings of trees. Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE).
  49. ↑ Xylem and wood. BioTech. Cronodon Museum.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Pessarakli, Mohammad (2005). Handbook of Photosynthesis. CRC Press. pp. 717–739. ISBN 978-0-8247-5839-4. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  51. ↑ Starr, Cecie; Evers, Christine; Starr, Lisa (2010). Biology: Concepts and Applications. Cengage Learning. p. 734. ISBN 978-1-4390-4673-9. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  52. ↑ Bullock, Stephen H. (March 1990). "Phenology of canopy trees of a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico". Biotropica 22 (1): 22–35. DOI:10.2307/2388716.
  53. ↑ Beentje, Henk (2010). The Kew Plant Glossary. Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9. p. 87.
  54. ↑ Page, Christopher N. (1990). "Phyllocladaceae" pp. 317–319. In: Klaus Kubitzki (general editor); Karl U. Kramer and Peter S. Green (volume editors) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants volume I. Springer-Verlag: Berlin; Heidelberg, Germany. ISBN 978-0-387-51794-0
  55. ↑ Beck, Charles B. (1960). "The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon". Brittonia 12 (4): 351–368. DOI:10.2307/2805124.
  56. ↑ Gnaedinger, Silvia (2012). "Ginkgoalean woods from the Jurassic of Argentina: Taxonomic considerations and palaeogeographical distribution". Geobios 45 (2): 187–198. DOI:10.1016/j.geobios.2011.01.007.
  57. ↑ Arens, Nan C. (1998). Ginkgo. Lab IX; Ginkgo, Cordaites and the Conifers. University of California Museum of Paleontology.
  58. ↑ Lowman, M D (2009). "Canopy research in the twenty-first century: a review of arboreal ecology". Tropical Ecology 50: 125–136.
  59. ↑ Zotz, Gerhard (2016). Plants on Plants – The Biology of Vascular Epiphytes. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-39237-0. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  60. ↑ The structure of a forest. Enviropol.
  61. ↑ Forest Layers, Stories, And Stratification. WorldAtlas.
  62. ↑ Trees outside forests. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2002).

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